These examples are borrowed directly from the Medical University of South Carolina Libraries
The PICO question format is useful for clinical and quantitative research topics (therapy, diagnosis, prognosis, etiology/harm, and prevention questions).
PICO questions identify 3-4 concepts: patient/population, intervention, comparison (optional), and outcome.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Patient/Population/Problem | Who is my question focused on? | Infants diagnosed with necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) |
| Intervention | What is the proposed new intervention? | Early enteral refeeding |
| Comparison (optional) | What is the current or alternative state? | Late enteral re-feeding |
| Outcome | What is the measurable outcome being impacted? | NEC recurrence |
Research question: In infants diagnosed with necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), what is the effect of early enteral refeeding on NEC recurrence compared with late enteral refeeding?
These examples are borrowed directly from the Medical University of South Carolina Libraries
The PEO question framework is useful for qualitative research topics. PEO questions identify three concepts: population, exposure, and outcome.
| Element | Definition | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Population | Who is my question focused on? | mothers | |
| Exposure | What is the issue I am interested in? | postnatal depression | |
| Outcome |
|
daily living experiences |
Research question: What are the daily living experiences of mothers with postnatal depression?
These examples are borrowed directly from the Medical University of South Carolina Libraries
The SPIDER question framework is useful for qualitative or mixed methods research topics focused on "samples" rather than populations.
SPIDER questions identify five concepts: sample, phenomenon of interest, design, evaluation,and research type.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Sample | Who is the group of people being studied? | young parents |
| Phenomenon of Interest | What are the reasons for behavior and decisions? | attendance at antenatal education classes |
| Design | How has the research been collected (e.g., interview, survey)? | interviews |
| Evaluation | What is the outcome being impacted? | experiences |
| Research type | What type of research (qualitative or mixed methods)? | qualitative studies |
Research question: What are the experiences of young parents in attendance at antenatal education classes?
These examples are borrowed directly from the Medical University of South Carolina Libraries
The SPICE question framework is useful for qualitative research topics evaluating the outcomes of a service, project, or intervention. SPICE questions identify five concepts: setting, perspective, intervention/exposure/interest, comparison, and evaluation.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Setting | Setting is the context for the question (where). | South Carolina |
| Perspective | Perspective is the users, potential users, or stakeholders of the service (for whom). | teenagers |
| Intervention / Interest / Exposure | Intervention is the action taken for the users, potential users, or stakeholders (what). | provision of Quit Kits to support smoking cessation |
| Comparison | Comparison is the alternative actions or outcomes (compared to what). | no support or "cold turkey" |
| Evaluation | Evaluation is the result or measurement that will determine the success of the intervention (what is the result, how well). | number of successful attempts to give up smoking with Quit Kits compared to number of successful attempts with no support |
Research question: For teenagers in South Carolina, what is the effect of provision of Quit Kits to support smoking cessation on number of successful attempts to give up smoking compared to no support ("cold turkey")?
These examples are borrowed directly from the Medical University of South Carolina Libraries.
The ECLIPSE framework is useful for qualitative research topics investigating the outcomes of a policy or service. ECLIPSE questions identify six concepts: expectation, client group, location, impact, professionals, and service.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Expectation | What are you looking to improve or change? What is the information going to be used for? | to increase access to wireless internet in the hospital |
| Client group | Who is the service or policy aimed at? | patients and families |
| Location | Where is the service or policy located? | hospitals |
| Impact | What is the change in service or policy that the researcher is investigating? | clients have easy access to free internet |
| Professionals | Who is involved in providing or improving the service or policy? | IT, hospital administration |
| Service | What kind of service or policy is this? | provision of free wireless internet to patients |
Research question: How can I increase access to wireless internet for hospital patients?
This example was borrowed from the University of Staffordshire Library.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Context | What is the social, cultural or geographical context of your research? | Friendship groups at university |
| How | What research methods are you using? | Questionnaires and interviews |
| Issues | Which behaviours or experience are you examining? | Meaning of friendship; development of friendship groups; the ways that friends socialize |
| Population | How are you defining the population you are researching? | Students at universities in the UK |
Research Question: How do students at UK universities meet new friends, develop and sustain connections connections, and what do these connections mean to them?
These examples were borrowed from University of Kent Libraries.
| Element | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Context | Which individuals, relationships, institutional settings, or wider systems are being studied? | Indigenous populations in Canada and United States |
| Intervention | What is the event/activity/ or action you are investigating? | Implementation and outcomes of source water protection programs |
| Mechanisms | What are the mechanisms which explain the relationship between interventions and outcomes? | Case studies from source water protection programs |
| Outcomes | What are the effects of the intervention? How will the outcomes be measured? What are the intended and unintended effects? | Inclusion of indigenous people on implementation |